History of India, polity, constitution in detail. Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 in detail.

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The Company Rule (1773-1858)

Regulating Act of 1773

This act is of great constitutional importance as:

1.      It was the first step taken by the British Govt to control and regulate the affairs of the East India Company in India.

2.      It recognized for the first time the political and administrative functions of the company.

3.      It laid the foundations of central administration in India.

Features of the Act

1.      It designated the Governor of Bengal as the Governor-General of Bengal and created an Executive Council of four members to assist him. First such Governor General was Lord Warren Hastings.

2.      It made the governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies subordinate to the governor-general of Bengal, unlike earlier, when the three presidencies were independent of one another.

3.      It provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Calcutta (1774) comprising one chief justice and three other judges.

4.      It prohibited the servants of the company from engaging in any private trade or accepting presents or bribes from the natives.

5.      It strengthened the control of the British Govt over the company by requiring the Court of Directors to report its revenue, civil and military affairs in India.

Pitt’s India Act of 1784

To remove the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773, The British Parliament passed the Amending Act of 1781, (also known as Act of Settlement).

Features

1.      It distinguished between the commercial and political functions of the company.

2.      It allowed the Court of Directors to manage commercial affairs but created a new body called Board of Control to manage the political affairs. So, it established a system of double govt.

3.       It empowered the Board of Control to supervise and direct all operations of the Civil and military government or revenues of the British possessions in India.

After this Act, company’s territories in India were for the first time called the British possessions in India.

Also, the British Govt was given the supreme control over the company’s affairs and its administration in India.

Charter Act of 1833

It was the final step towards centralization in British India.

Features

1.      It made GG of Bengal as the GG of India and vested in him all civil and military powers.  Lord William Bentick was the first GG of India.

2.      Now, the Governors of Bombay and Madras had no legislative powers. The GG of India was given exclusive legislative powers for the entire British India. The laws made under the previous acts were called as Regulations while laws made under this act were called as Acts.

3.      This Act ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial body, which became a purely administrative body.

4.      It attempted to introduce a system of open competition for selection of civil servants, and stated that Indians should not be debarred from holding any place, office and employment under the Company. But this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of Directors.

Charter Act of 1853

It was the last of the series of Charter Acts passed by the British Parliament between 1793 and 1853.

Features

1.      It separated the legislative and executive functions of the GG’s council for the first time. Provided for addition of six new members called legislative councilors to the council. So, it established it established a separate GG’s legislative council which came to be known as the Indian (Central) Legislative Council. The legislative wing of the council functioned as a mini-Parliament, adopting the same procedures as the British Parliament. So, legislation for the first time was treated as a special function of the government requiring special machinery and special process.

2.      It introduced an open competition system of selection and recruitment of civil servants which was now opened to Indians also.

3.      It extended the Company’s rule and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories on trust for the British Crown without specifying any particular period unlike previous charters.

4.      It introduced (for the first time) local representations in the Indian (Central) Legislative Council. Out of the 6 legislative members, four members were appointed by the local governments of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.

The Crown Rule (1858-1947)

Government of India Act 1858

This Act was enacted in the wake of the Revolt of 1857 also known as First War of Independence or the sepoy mutiny. This act is also known as the Act for the Good Government of India. It abolished the East India Company, and transferred the powers of govt, territories and revenues to the British Crown.

Features

1.      It provided that India henceforth was to be governed by, and in the name of Her Majesty. Now, the designation of the GG of India was changed to that of Viceroy of India. He was the direct representative of the British Crown in India. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India.

2.      This act ended the system of double govt because Board of Control and Court of Directors were abolished.

3.      Now, a new office of Secretary of State for India was created and it was vested with completed authority and control over Indian administration. He was a member of the British Cabinet and was responsible ultimately to the British Parliament.

4.      This act established a Council of India with 15 members to assist the secretary of state for India. He was made the chairman of the council.

5.      The act also constituted the secretary of state-in-council as a body corporate, capable of suing and being sued in India and England.

The act did not alter in any substantial way the system of govt that prevailed in India.

Indian Councils Act of 1861, 1892 and 1909

After the sepoy mutiny, the British govt felt that cooperation of Indians in the admin was required. So, three acts were enacted by the British Parliament in 1861, 1892 and 1909.

Features of the Act of 1861

1.      This act began representative institutions by associating Indian with the law-making process. It provided that Viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official members of his expanded council. In 1862, Lord Canning, the then viceroy, nominated three Indians to his legislative council-Raja of Benaras, Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao.

2.      This act started decentralization by restoring the legislative powers to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. We can say that it reversed the centralizing tendency that started from the Regulating Act of 1773 (reached its climax under the Charter Act of 1833). So, this policy of legislative devolution resulted in the grant of almost complete internal autonomy to the provinces in 1937.

3.      The act also provided for the establishing new legislative councils for Bengal, North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab, which were established in 1862, 1866 and 1897, respectively.

4.      The act also gave recognition to the portfolio system introduced by Lord Canning in 1859. Under this, a member of the Viceroy’s council was made in-charge of one or more departments of the govt and was authorized to issue final orders on behalf of the council on matters of his department.

5.      The act empowered the Viceroy to issue ordinances without the concurrence of the legislative council, during an emergency. Life of such ordinances was six months.

Features of the Act of 1892

1.      It somehow increased the number of additional members in the Central and provincial legislative councils.

2.      This act increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the power of discussing the budget.

3.      The act also provided for the nomination of some non-official members of (a) Central legislative council by the Viceroy, (b) Provincial legislative councils by Governors.

Features of the Act of 1909

The act is also called as Morley-Minto Reforms (Lord Morley was the then Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto was the then Viceroy of India.

1.      This act considerably increased the size of the legislative councils (Central and provincial). The number of members in the Central legislative council was raised from 16-60.

2.      This act retained official majority in the Central legislative Council.

3.      Now, the act had increased the functions of the legislative functions at both the levels and the members could ask questions, move resolutions on budget etc.

4.      Now, the provision came for the first time, for the association of Indians with the executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council. He was appointed the law member.

5.      The act also introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by separate electorate. Now, the Muslims were to be elected only by Muslim voters. The act and Lord Minto came to be known as Father of Communal Electorate.

Government of India Act of 1919

The British Govt on Aug 20, 1917 for the first time declared that their aim was to introduce responsible govt in India.

So, the GOI Act 1919 was enacted and it came into force on 1921. The act is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (because Montagu was the Secretary of State for India and Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India).

Features of the act

1.      Now, the central and provincial legislatures could make laws on their list of subjects with still the structure of the govt centralized.

2.      The act further divided the provincial subjects into two parts- transferred and reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the legislative council. The reserved subjects were to be administered b the governors and his executive council without being responsible to the legislative council. This dual scheme of running the govt was called DYARCHY (remained unsuccessful).

3.      The act also introduced bicameralism and direct elections. So, the Indian Legislative Council was replaced by a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower House (Legislative Assembly). Most of the members of both the houses were chosen by direct elections.

4.      The act required that six members of the Viceroy’s executive Council had to be Indians.

5.      The act also extended the principle of communal representations after providing separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.

6.      The act granted franchise to a ltd number of people on the basis of properly, tax and education.

7.      The act created a new office of the High Commissioner for India in London and transferred to him some of the functions performed by the Secretary of State for India.

8.      The act provided for the establishment of a public service commission. So, a Central Public Service Commission was set up for in 1926 for recruiting civil servants.

9.      The act separated first time provincial budgets from Central budget and authorized the provincial legislatures to enact their own budgets.

10. The act now provided for the appointment of a statutory commission to inquire into and report on its working after 10 yrs of its coming into action.

Simon Commission

In November 1927, the British govt announced the appointment of a 7-member statutory commission under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon commission to report on the condition of India under its new constitution. All members of the commission were British and all the parties boycotted the commission.

The commission submitted its report in 1930 and recommended the abolition of diarchy, extension of responsible govt in the provinces, establishment of a federation of British India and princely states, continuation of communal electorate and so on. To British govt convened three round table conferences to consider the proposals of the commission. The conference was to be of British govt, British India and Indian princely states. On the discussion basis, a White paper on constitutional reforms was prepared and submitted for the consideration of the Join select committee of the British parliament.

The recommendation so f the committee were incorporated (with some changes) in the next Govt of India Act of 1935.

Communal Award

In Aug 1932, Ramsay MacDonald, British PM announced a scheme of representation of the minorities which came to be known as the Communal Award. The award not only continued to separate Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans but also extended it to the depressed classes. Gandhi was distressed over it and took fast unto death in Yeravada jail (Poona) to modify the award. And then there was an agreement between the leaders of the cong and depressed classes. The agreement came to be known as Poona Pact, retained the Hindu joint electorate and gave reserved seats to the depressed classes.

Govt of India Act of 1935

This act marked a second milestone towards a complete responsible govt. It was lengthy and detailed with 321 Sections and 10 Schedules.

Features

1.      It provided for the establishment of an All India Federation consisting of provinces and princely states as units. It divided the powers between the Centre and units in terms of three lists Federal List (for centre with 59 items), Provincial List (with 54 items) and the Concurrent List (for both, with 36 items). Since the princely states did not join it the federation didn’t come into being.

2.      Now, the diarchy was abolished by this act in the provinces and provincial autonomy came into being. Now the governor was required to act with the advice of ministers responsible for provincial legislature. It came into effect in 1937 and discontinued in 1939.

3.      It provided for the adoption of diarchy at the Centre.

4.      The act introduced bicameralism in six out of 11 provinces. The legislatures of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces were made bicameral consisting of a legislative council (upper house).

5.      The act extended the principle of communal representation by providing separate electorates for depressed classes (SC, women and labourers).

6.      It abolished the Council of India, established by the GOI Act 1858. The secy of state for India was provided with a team of advisers.

7.      Now, 10% of population got the right to vote.

8.      The act provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank of India.

9.      The act provided for the establishment of not only a Federal Public Service Commission but also a Provincial Public Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission for two or more provinces.

10. The act also provided for the establishment of a Federal Court that was set up in 1937.

Indian Independence Act of 1947

On Feb 20, 1947, the British PM Clement Atlee declared that the British rule in India would end by June 30, 1948 after which the powers would be transferred to responsible Indian hands.

Again on June 3, 1947, the British Govt made it clear that an constitution framed by the constituent assembly of India (formed in 1946) cant apply to those parts of the country which were unwilling to accept it. On the same day, (June 3) Lord Mountbatten, the then viceroy of India, put forth the partition plan, also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The plan was accepted by the Cong and the Muslim League.

Features

1.      It ended the British rule in India and declared India as an independent and sovereign state from 15 Aug, 1947.

2.      It provided for the partition of India and creation of two independent dominions of India and Pakistan with right to secede from the British Commonwealth.

3.      The act abolished the office of viceroy and provided for each dominion, a GG, who was to be appointed by the British King on the advice of the dominion cabinet. His Majesty’s Govt in Britain was to have no responsibility with respect to the GOI or Pakistan.

4.      It empowered the Constituent Assembly of two dominions to frame and adopt any constitution for their respective nations and to repeal any act of the British Parliament.

5.      It empowered the CA of both the dominions to legislate for their respective territories till the new constitution was drafted and enforced. No act of the British Parliament passed after August 15, 1947.

6.      It abolished the office of the secy and transferred his functions to secy of state for Commonwealth Affairs.

7.      The act granted freedom to the Indian princely states and treaty relations with tribal areas from August 15, 1947.

8.      The act provided for the governance of each of the dominions and provinces by the GOI 1935 till the new constitution was framed.

9.      The act deprived British Monarch of his right to veto bills or ask for reservation of certain bills for his approval. But, this right was reserved for the GG. The GG would have full power to assent to any ill in the name of His Majesty.

10. It designated the GG of India and the provincial governors as (nominal) heads of the states. They were made to act on the advice of the respective council of ministers in all matters.

11. It dropped the title of Emperor of India from royal titles of king of England.

12. The act discontinued the appointment of civil services and reservation of posts by secy. The members of the civil services appointed before Aug 15, 1947 would continue to enjoy all benefits that they were entitled to till that time.

At midnight 14-15 Aug, 1947, the British rule ended and the power was transferred to the two new independent Dominions of India and Pak.

Lord Mountbatten became the first GG of the new dominion of India. He swore in J. Nehru as the first PM of Independent India.

The CA formed in 1946 became the Parliament of Indian Dominion.

Reference from many books and personal knowledge

Nasser Gorsi

Adjective order in a sentence

Photo: www.studenttests.no

Whenever we use more than one adjective in a particular sentence, we follow this order-OSACOMP.

1. Opinion
2. Size
3. Age
4. Colour
5. Origin
6. Material
7. Purpose
For example: We can't say, "I bought a new, beautiful, small, white, work, car."
So, after you follow the proper order, it becomes:
"I bought a beautiful, small, new, white, work car.
Nasser Gorsi.

Some uncountable nouns you should know

Some uncountable nouns in English

Photo: http://kavitashalini.blogspot.in/2014/08/blog-post_35.html

1. Accommodation: You can't say accommodations. It's incorrect in British English.
2. Advice: You can say some advice, any advice, a piece of advice.
3. Baggage: You should use it like 'excess baggage, much baggage, many pieces of Baggage.
4. Information: You should say 'any information, an interesting piece of information, some information'

Some more uncountable nouns:
5. Money
6. Music
7. Furniture
8. Wine
9. Work
10. Travel
11. Scenery
12. Aid
13. Air
14. Anger
15. Alcohol
15. Applause
16. Assistance
17. Beauty
19. Beer
20. Biology
21. Blood
22. Bread
23. Business
24. Butter
25. Cash
26. Chaos
27. Chess
28. Cheese
29. Cardboard
30. Clothing
31. Coal
32. Coffee
33. Content
34. Corruption
35. Cotton
36. Courage
37. Damage
38. Dessert
39. Dust
40. Education
41. Electricity
42. Employment
43. Energy
44. Enjoyment
45. Equipment
46. Entertainment
47. Evidence
48. Faith
49. Fame
50. Food

Nasser Gorsi

Indian constitution for LLB or Law entrance test for Panjab University, Delhi University

Indian Constitution and Civil Life Constitution

Photo: Google images

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of the govt institutions, sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 395 articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and 116 amendments.

Drafting of constitution

On 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees included a committee on Fundamental Rights, Union powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee.

On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr BR Ambedkar as the chairman along with 6 other members assisted by a constitutional adviser. The constitutional adviser was Sir Bengal Narsing Rau (who became first Indian Judge in International Court of Justice from 1950-54). The constituent assembly constituted of 381 members representing each and every province of the country had members belonging to different communities and regions of India. It also had members representing different political persuasions. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Shyama Prasad Mukharjee were some important figures in the assembly discussions.

There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. The anglo-Indian community was represented by Frank Anthony and the Parsis were represented by HP Modi, constitutional experts like Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyer, BR Ambedkar, BN Rao and KM Munshi were also members of the assembly. Sarojini Naidu and Vijaylakshmi Pandit were important woman members.

Dr Sachidanand Sinha was the first President of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected President of the Assembly.

A draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on Nov 4 1947. Draft constitution was debated and over 2000 amendments were moved over a period of two years.

Finally, on 26 Nov 1949, the process completed and Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution.

284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. The assembly met in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days before adopting the Constitution.

Borrowed features of the constitution

The architects of India’s constitution were heavily influenced by the British model of the Parliamentary democracy. In addition, a number of principles were adopted from the Constitution of the USA, including the separation of powers among the major branches of the government, the establishment of a Supreme Court, and the adoption, albeit in modified form, of a federal structure.

British Constitution

1.      Parliamentary form of Govt

2.      Idea of single citizenship

3.      The idea of the rule of the law

4.      Institution of speaker and his role

5.      Law-making procedure

United States of America Constitution

1.      Charter of the Fundamental Rights, which is similar to the USA Bills of Rights.

2.      Federal structure of the govt.

3.      Power of judicial review and independence of the judiciary.

Irish Constitution

1.      Constitutional enunciation of the directive principles of state policy.

French Constitution

1.      Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

Canadian constitution

1.      Quasi-federal form of govt (a federal system with a strong central govt) idea of residual powers.

Australian Constitution

1.      Be idea of the concurrent-list-Freedom of trade and commerce within the country and between the states.

Soviet Constitution

1.      Planning commission and five-year plans

2.      Fundamental Duties.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The constitution was enacted by the constituent assembly on 26 Nov 1949, and came into effect on 26 Jan 1950. The date 26 Jan was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of Independence in 1930.

With its adoption, the Union of India officially became the modern and contemporary Republic of India and it replaced Government of India Act 1935 as the country’s fundamental governing document.

The constitution declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice equality, and liberty and endeavors to promote fraternity among them. The words “socialist” and “secular”were added to the definition in 1976 by a constitutional amendment. India celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 26 Jan each year as the Republic Day.

WRITTEN, LENGTHY AND DETAILED CONSTITUTION:

Our Constitution is written, lengthy, and detailed. Written constitution is that which is based on written laws duly passed by a representative body elected for this very purpose. In other words, a written constitution is enacted constitution. An unwritten constitution, on the other hand, is an evolved constitution. The constitution of the USA is an example of a written constitution and that of English of an unwritten one.

PARTLY RIGID AND PARTLY FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION

A flexible constitution is that which can be amended like an ordinary law of the country i.e. by a simple majority of the Parliament. On the other hand, a rigid constitution is that one which prescribes a difficult procedure for its own amendment. The constitution of the USA is the best example of a rigid constitution because it can be amended only if a proposal for constitutional amendment is passed by a two-third majority of each House of the Congress (the US Parliament) and ratified by at least three-fourths of the federating states. The constitution of the Great Britain, on the other hand, is highly flexible. This is so because it can be amended by a simple majority of its Parliament, much like the ordinary laws of the country.

The Indian constitution is neither very flexible nor very rigid. Some provisions of the constitution can be amended by a simple majority of the Parliament, like ordinary laws of the land while most of the provisions can only be amended by a two-third majority of the Parliament. For very important provisions of the Constitution, such as the manner of election of the President and the extent of the legislative powers of the Union and the states, an amend passed by a two-third majority of the Parliament should also be ratified by at least one-half of the State Legislatures. The Indian Constitution thus, combines the flexibility of the British Constitution and the rigidity of the American Constitution.

PARTLY FEDERAL AND PARTLY UNITARY

Our constitution declares India a Union of States (federation). It prescribes dual set of governments-the Union Govt and the State Govts. The subject of administration have also been classified into three lists- the Union List, State List and the Concurrent List. Whereas, subjects of national importance like currency, defence, railways have been assigned to the Union Govt and placed under the Union List, subjects of local importance like agriculture, law and order, health and entertainment have been assigned to the states and form a part of the State List. Both the Union govt and the State govts operate within the spheres of their authority. The Union Parliament and the state legislatures enjoy co-equal powers to make laws in regard to the concurrent subjects. These subjects are of common importance such as marriage and divorce, adoption etc. However, if there is a conflict between a Union law and a law passed by one or many state legislatures, the law made by the union Parliament would prevail over the state law.

The Indian Constitution possesses other features of a federation too, for example, supremacy of the constitution. This means that the Union and the state governments both operate within the limits set by the constitution. Both the govts derive authority from the constitution itself. Not only this, the Supreme Court is given the responsibility of interpreting the Constitution in case of a dispute or confusion. The Supreme Court of India is the guardian of the Constitution and fulfills its role as a Federal Court too. The Indian Constitution, though federal in form, has a strong unitary bias. The Central Govt possesses extensive powers compared to the State Govts. The exercise of these powers by the Centre gives the Constitution the strength of a unitary govt. The Union Government can supersede the authority of the states both in the normal and abnormal times. The President of India can declare three different types of emergency. During the operation of an emergency, the powers of the State Govt are greatly curtailed and the Union Govt becomes all in all. Even in normal times, the Union Parliament can legislate upon a subject given in the State List, if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a two-third vote that such legislation is necessary in the national interest. Another unitary feature of our Constitution is that it gives Union Parliament the power to alter the boundaries of the existing states or to carve out new states out of the existing ones. It is on account of these features that the Indian Constitution is said to be federal in form but unitary in spirit.

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

The Constitution of India adopts Parliamentary system of govt at the centre and in the states. In such a system, the executive power is wielded by the Council of Ministers which is collectively responsible to the legislature. The Ministers continue in office so long as they enjoy the confidence of a majority of members in the legislature.  The moment they lose this confidence, a vote of no-confidence is passed against them and they have to resign. The responsibility of the executive to the legislature is also ensured by the right of the members of the legislature to put questions to the ministers. The members may table adjournment motions and call attention motions against the policies pursued by the govt. The ministers are duty-bound to answer all such questions and satisfy the members of the legislature.

SOVEREIGNTY

Sovereignty  is one of the foremost elements of any independent state. It means absolute independence, i.e. govt which is not controlled by any other power internal or external. A country cannot have its own constitution without being sovereign. India is a sovereign country. It is free from external control. It can frame its own policies.

SOCIALIST

The word socialist was not there in the Preamble of the Constitution in its original form. In 1976, the 42^nd Amendment of the Constitution incorporated “Socialist” and “Secular” in the Preamble. The word socialism had been used in the context of economic planning. It signifies major role in the economy. It also means commitment to attain ideals like removal of inequalities, provision of minimum basic necessities to all, these ideals have been incorporated as well as partly, implemented in the Constitution.

SECULARISM

In the context of secularism in India, it is said that India is neither religious, nor irreligious nor anti-religious. It implies that in India there will be no ‘State’ religion-the state will not support any particular religion out of public fund. This has two implications:

1.      Every individual is free to believe in and practice any religion.

2.      State will not discriminate against any individual or group on the basis of religion.

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Constitution belongs to the people of India. The last line of the Preamble says “hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this constitution”. In fact, the Democratic principles of the country flow from this memorable last line of the Preamble. Democracy is generally known as the govt of the people, by the people and for the people.

The democratic principles are highlighted with the provisions of Universal Adult Franchise, elections, Fundamental Rights, and responsible govt.

The Preamble also declares India as a Republic. It means that the head of the state is the President who is indirectly elected and he is not a hereditary ruler as in the case of British Monarch.

JUSTICE

Justice promises to give people what they are entitled to in terms of basic rights to food, clothing, housing, participation in the decision-making and living with dignity as human beings. The Preamble covers all these dimensions of justice-social, economic and political. Besides, the granting of political justice in the form of universal adult franchise or the representative form of democracy.

LIBERTY

The Preamble also mentions about liberty of thought and expression. These freedoms have been guaranteed in the constitution through the Fundamental Rights. Though freedom from want has not been guaranteed in the Fundamental Rights, certain directives to the state have been mentioned in the Directive Principles.

EQUALITY

Equality is considered to be the essence of modern democratic ideology. The constitution makers placed the ideals of equality in a place of pride in the Preamble. All kinds of inequality based on teh concept of rulers and the ruled or on the basis of caste and gender, were to be eliminated. All citizens of India should be treated equally and extended equal protection of law without any discrimination based on caste, creed, birth, religion, sex etc.

FRATERNITY, DIGNITY, UNITY AND INTEGRITY

In the background of India’s multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi-religious society and keeping in view the partition of the country, the farmers of the constitution were very much concerned about the unity and integrity of our newly independent country. There was a need for harmonious co-existence among various religions, linguistics, cultural and economic groups. Inclusion of phrases like dignity of individuals, fraternity among people and unity and integrity of the nation in the Preamble highlight such a need.

Problem of wisdom tooth and being wise.

After my some infection my my wisdom tooth gum, my dentist said, gums are not fully developed for wisdom teeth these days so the sometimes food gets stuck in there which leads to infection.
He suggested me to extract my left lower jaw wisdom tooth.
The infection has led to swelling even till my neck, can't eat for third consecutive day now.
Problems are recurring. One after another.
Nasser Gorsi


PS: There is a saying in India: Whatever a guy with 32 teeth speaks,just happens for sure.
People often ask me if I have 32 teeth. I smile and say, I assess the situation and then tell the outcome before it happens.
Of course, everybody can't assess.

Golden Tips for IELTS speaking module

TIPS FOR SPEAKING MODULE IN IELTS
 

Image courtesy: yourieltstutor.com

1. Give yourself a pause after listening to question. Don’t rush.
2. You should try talking to yourself as much as you can.
3.Try not to change language and be spontaneous
4.Get some sample questions and prepare their answers by writing different answers
5.You must speak more than your examiner. Remember! You are being tested. Not the examiner.
6.Don’t hesitate for clarification if you are not clear about the question.
7.Don’t remember the answers. The examiners are highly trained. Think and then speak. It’s the test of your communication skills.
8. Practise at your home, record your voice and be your own critic.

Submitted by

Nasser Gorsi

How to earn money from blog. What is adsense. How to get Google adsense.

Photo courtesy: listtoptens.com

You might be looking for an answer about how to make money from a blog. Here is the answer.
Plan your blog about a particular subject and focus its content matter accordingly. After posting material regularly like every day or thrice a week, you may fill your blog up to some standard and then apply for Google adsense. The Google officials will assess your content and pageviews. It may take two to six months but everything takes time. There is a beautiful word in English dictionary called PATIENCE, please have that.
After publishing around 40 posts and around 3,000 pageviews, your adsense may be approved.
After its approval, Google will paste ads on your blog and if anybody clicks on that ad through your blog, you get paid in cents.
It took me some 8 months to get adsense approval. But I had been very careless about my blog. Your blog must focus on a particular subject. Moreover, you have to use it regularly only then the Google will consider it. You must not click on ads and plan everything accordingly.
There are people who make their blogs with much fan and fair. But they leave everything in a week or so.
On an average one in hundred clicks on the ads. Google has very strict rules and regulations and mentions it clearly that you cannot ask anybody to click on the ads.
Traffic on your blog also matters. I think Indian traffic is not good because they don't buy stuff but only check out the things online. But traffic from the US on your pageviews may matter.

Contributed by Nasser Gorsi

Как говорить по-английски . Как выучить английский язык, как носитель языка.

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Правило № 1
Всегда изучайте и обзор фразы , а не отдельные слова- не учится ни одного, отдельное слово . Когда вы найдете новое слово , всегда записывайте фразы он находится.
При просмотре , всегда готов рассмотреть все фразы , а неслова .
Я считаю, что ваш говорить и грамматика улучшит во много раз быстрее, делая так, а также, всегда писать полную фразу.
Фразы группы слов, которые , естественно, идут вместе.

Правило № 2
Не изучайте слишком много грамматики- Пожалуйста, спрятал свои грамматические книги и учебники . Языки существуют , прежде чем кто делает правила и нормы . Грамматические правила могут ограничить способность к обучению .

Правила № 3
Слушайте первого Это одна из наиболее важных правил. Вы должны слушать, чтобы понять английский язык. Каждый день, вы должны подвергать себя языке столько, сколько вы можете. Он прост и может быть ключом к вашему успеху .
Ни один ребенок не может говорить , не слушая или получить подвергается языка.

Правила № 4
Медленно и глубоко обучения является самым один из секретов для обучения говорить английский учится каждое слово и фразу глубоко. Это не достаточно, чтобы знать определение или запомнить его на испытания. Вы должны поставить слово глубоко в вашем мозгу. Повторяйте это много раз . Узнайте глубоко , говорят легко. Как вы узнали глубоко ? Просто повторите все ваши уроки или слушать их много раз . Например, если у вас есть аудио-книги , слушать к первой главе десятки раз , прежде чем идти на второй главе. Я предлагаю вам послушать главе 1 , по крайней мере 3-5 раза в день, в течение 10 дней.

Правило № 5
Используйте точки зрения мини -историй - это один из самых мощных способов выучить английский язык грамматика . Используйте точки зрения истории для автоматического грамматики. Вы должны изучать грамматику , слушая реальном английском языке. Лучший способ слушать ту же историю, сказал в разные времена (точки зрения) : прошлое , идеально подходит , настоящее, настоящее, будущее .

Правило № 6
Используйте только реальные уроки английского языка и материалы-изучения английского языка , если вы хотите понять носителей языка и говорить легко. Итак, я предлагаю вам использовать реальные журналы, аудио статьи, телепередачи, фильмы , радио ток-шоу и аудио книги. Чтобы узнать реальную английски, вы должны смотреть то, что они ( носители языка ) смотреть, слушать , что они слушают , читать то, что они читают. Смотрите свои фильмы

Правило № 7
Слушайте и ответить , не слушать и повторять-Use слушать и отвечать на уроки мини- рассказ . В каждой истории ,спикер рассказывает короткую простую историю . Он также задает вам много простых вопросов . Каждый раз, когда вы слышите вопрос, вы паузу и ответить на него.

Внесенный
Насер Gorsi
Английский как второй преподаватель языка

How to learn English. How to speak English fluently.

Photo courtesy: chinese-breeze.com

Rule No. 1
Always study and review phrases, not individual words- Do not study a single, individual word. When you find a new word, always write down the phrases it is in.
When you review, always review all of the phrase, not the word.
I believe your speaking and grammar will improve many times faster by doing so and also, always write the complete phrase.
Phrases are groups of words that naturally go together.

Rule No. 2
Don't study too much grammar-Kindly put away your grammar books and text books. Languages exist before anybody makes rules and regulations. Grammatical rules may limit your learning capacity.

Rules No. 3
Listen first-This is one of the most important rules. you must listen to understand English. Everyday, you should expose yourself to the language as much as you can. It is simple and could be key to your success.
No child can speak without listening or getting exposed to a language.

Rules No. 4
Slow and deep learning is best-One of the secrets to learning speaking English is learning every word and phrase deeply. It is not enough to know a definition or remember it for a test. You must put the word deep into your brain. Repeat it many times. Learn deeply, speak easily. How do you learn deeply? Just repeat all your lessons or listen them many times. For example, if you have an audio book, listen to the first chapter dozens of times before you go to the second chapter. I suggest you listen to the chapter 1 at least 3-5 times each day, for 10 days.

Rule No. 5
Use point of view mini-stories-This is one of the most powerful ways to learn English grammar. Use point of view stories for automatic grammar. You must learn grammar by listening to real English. The best way to listen to the same story, told in different times (points of view): Past, Perfect, Present, Present, Future.

Rule No. 6
Only use real English lessons and materials-You learn English if you want to understand native speakers and speak easily. So, I suggest you use real magazines, audio articles, TV shows, movies, radio talk shows and audio books. To learn real English, you must watch what they (native speakers) watch, listen what they listen to, read what they read. Watch their movies

Rule No. 7
Listen and answer, not listen and repeat-Use listen and answer mini-story lessons. In each story, a speaker tells a short simple story. He also asks you a lot of easy questions. Every time you hear a question, you pause and answer it.

Contributed by Nasser Gorsi

ESL lecturer

Where to use 'TO'. Different uses of 'TO'. All you need to know about 'TO'

 

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To is a preposition, infinitive maker and an adverb.

1) Used in the direction of something:
For example:
1. He walked to the office.
2. He fell to the road.
3. She was on the way to the market.
4. John pointed to something on the opposite market.
5. Our childhood was spent travelling from place to place.

2) Situated in the direction mentioned from something:
For example:
1.Place the book to the left of the bag.
2. There is a river to the north.

3) As far as something:
For example:
1. The road leads down to the river.
2. Her hair fell to her waist.

4) Reaching a particular state:
For example:
1.The vegetables were cooked to perfection.
2. He tore the letter to pieces.
3. He sang the baby to sleep.
4. The email reduced him to tears.

5) Used to show the end or limit of a range or period of time:
For example:
1. A drop in profits from $200 million to $150 million.
2. I'd say she was 35 to 40 years old.
3. I like all kinds of music from classical to modern
4. She watched the programme from beginning to end.

6) Before the start of something:
For example:
1. How long is it to dinner?
2. It is ten to five.

7) Used to show the person or thing that receives something:
For example:
1. She gave it to my brother.
2. I will explain to you where everything goes.
3. I am deeply grateful to him.
4. Who did she address the letter to?

8) Used to show the person or thing that is affected by an action:
For example:
1. He is devoted to his project.
2. What has she done to her hair?

9) Used to show that two things are attached or connected:
1. Attach this wire to the TV.

10) Used to show a relationship between one person or thing and another:
For example:
1. He is married to an American.
2. The Russian ambassador to India.
3. The solution to his problem.

11) Directed towards; concerning:
For example:
1. Terrorism is a threat to world peace.
2. He made reference to his recent article.

12) Used to introduce the second part of a comparison:
For example:
1. She prefers walking to climbing.
2. The tourism today is nothing to what it once was.
3. She won by six goals to two.

13) Used to show a quantity or rate:
For example:
1. There are 2.54 centimetres to an inch.
2. This motorbike does 65 miles to a gallon.

14) In honour of something or somebody:
For example:
1. A monument to the martyrs who died in the war.
2. Let's drink to Nasser and his new English Academy.

15) While something else is happening or being done:
For example:
1. She left the stage to prolonged applause.

16) Used after verbs of movement to mean 'with the intention of giving something':
For example:
1. People rushed to his rescue and picked him up.

17) Used to show somebody's attitude or reaction to something:
For example:
1. His music isn't really to our taste.
2. To my astonishment, she smiled.

18) Used to show what somebody's opinion or feeling about something is:
For example:
1. It sounded like a blast to me.

Please leave a comment and share it if you feel that this post deserves.
Contributed by Nasser Gorsi

Largest country in the world Russia. Official name as Russian Federation

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Russian Federation is the largest country in the world.
Russia has 13 time zones with its capital Moscow.
Russi

Tongue twisters in English Part-III

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1. But a bit of better butter makes better batter.
2. So Betty Botter bought a bit of better butter.
3. Making Betty Botter's bitter batter better.
4. Which witch wished which wicked wish?
5. Shep Schwab shopped at Scott's Schnapps shop.
6. One shot of Scott's Schnapps stopped Schwab's watch.
7. Mr See owned a saw.
8. Mr Soar owned a seesaw.
9. Now, See's saw sawed Soar's seesaw before Soar saw see which made soar sore.
10. Had Soar seen See's saw before See sawed Soar's seeshaw, See's saw would not have sawed Soar's seesaw.
11. So See's saw sawed Soar's seesaw. But it was sad to see Soar so sore just because See's saw sawed Soar's seesaw.
12. I wish to wish the wish you wish to wish, but if you wish the wish the witch wishes, I wont wish the wish you wish to wish

English language tongue twisters Part II

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1. She seels sea-shells onthe sea-shore.
2. The shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure.
3. For if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.
4. Then I'm sure she sells sea-shore shells.
5. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
6. A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked.
7. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
8. Where's the peck of pickled peppers peter Piper picked?
9. Betty Botter bought a bit of butter.
10.the butter Betty Botter bought was a bit bitter.

Most difficult Tongue twisters in English Part-I

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             The seething sea ceaseth and thus the seething see sufficeth us.

Facts about English. What do you call the dot above letters 'i' and 'j'?

Did you know?
The dot above the letters 'i' and 'j' is called superscript dot.

Funny English, different uses of that. When to use that many times in one sentence.

The following sentence contains seven same words in a row and still make sense.
It is true for all that that that that that that that refers to is not the same that that that that refers to.
(It is true for all that, that that "that" which that "that" refers to is not the same "that" which that "that" refers to.)

Different sounds of 'ough in English, Funny sounds in English

The combination of 'ough' is pronounced in 9 different ways.
'A rough-coated, dough-faced, thoughtful ploughman strode through the streets of London; after falling into a slough, he coughed and hiccoughed'

Interesting facts about English language.

Did you know?
The longest common English word without vowels is 'RHYTHMS'

Did you know the words 'alphabet' comes from the first two letters of Greek alphabet: alpha and beta.

How to speak English well? How to speak English like a native speaker. What are the problems in learning English?

How to speak English well? What is real English?

M. NASSER GORSI,
Linguistics expert and ESL lecturer

The hegemony of the English language has grown up so much that it has become a global language. Those countries where England had its colonies, left the language as a legacy after independence. Languages came into existence first, grammatical rules were created scientifically later on in order to teach and understand.
I believe, that one can succeed even if you don't have much knowledge about his/her subject, but provided that you know English well.
People in many countries like India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, middle east countries, etc. believe that English is the language of gentlemen and ladies. So, in the society, they manage to grab good respect.
I would like to classify English into two categories broadly:
1. Prescriptive English: This English is the actual language that is prescribed and is considered to be pure.
2. Descriptive English: It is the English that we manipulate according to our own mother tongue or you can say due to the mother tongue influence (MTI).

Never study grammar in depth.

When I was in school, I had always a bent towards languages. I always liked the Russians speaking Russian, Spanish by  Spanish and French by French people.
Somehow, I started teaching English as a second language when I was in the college. Then after three years of teaching, I came across some books and changed my strategy of teaching with the passage of time.
During my MA in English, in 2007, I studied linguistics, which helped me study the language scientifically and my love for languages grew more.
In 2008, the next year, I joined a one-year course in French language. Fortunately, I realised that 60-70% of the English language has been derived from French. My passion for teaching kept growing and I had increased my batches, earned good money, paid college expenses and had bought a lovely jet black cruiser motorbike.
One day, one of my students told me to teach him basic tenses. I postponed the topic for the next day as I had to prepare for myself first. It occurred to me that I had forgotten almost all the tenses. But I never forgot English. It was probably once you learn the language by heart (unconsciously), you don't need to take care of grammatical rules. So,thereafter, I studied the grammar deeply to teach and realised that I had forgotten many rules.
I taught hundreds of students. All of them wanted a magic wand and learn speaking English like an English speaker in one day. Believe me fellas, Rome was not built in one day. If you are born, you don't start speaking the next day, you take two to three years to learn the language.

Golden Tips that I involve in teaching English.

1. Start reading a good newspaper for two-three hours every day. Every day means every day. This will teach you grammar unconsciously.
2. Write  at least 10 pages of a notebook. This will not only improve your spellings, but will also improve your handwriting and some understanding of the language.

The level of our confidence keeps rising and diving. Sometimes, if you are in high spirits, you speak it boldly with confidence. At times, if the other person you are talking to, speaks fluently, you may lose confidence in yourself and get depressed. It happens, almost with every body.
There are people who speak fluently but do not know proper grammar even and there are some who write very well but can't speak. This is due to lack of practice and exposure.
Yes, exposure plays a vital role in speaking English. Ever wondered why do most Indians (any native of any country other than English) living in the English-speaking countries speak like English speakers? Yes, it is called exposure. Speaking and listening, both. Children who are brought up in the English-speaking countries speak just like any other English native. It is because they are the native, get 100 per cent exposure since their childhood.
What is Language Acquisition Device?
I am of the opinion that one can learn any language during his/her childhood because according to the Linguistics, there is something called LAD (Language Acquisition Device) in our brain. In the childhood, it is always easy to learn the languages because our LAD is empty and gets hold over the new things fast. As we grow, our use of the language, subjects starts limiting and we stop learning or learn at a slow pace after sometime. I know a few guys who were learning French language in my Panjab University class. They were in their early 60s and were retired from jobs. One of them had retired as a doctor, another one had retired from the education department. The doctor was very good a good learner. It is probably due to his hard work at home or he kept learning his whole life. On the other side, the other man, who had a Doctorate in Physics, told me in his Punjabi, "Zaar Nasser, mere ko ek baat samjh ni atti, man ghr mein bot meint karta hun, sali samjh ni atti French." (Dear Nasser, I don't understand one thing, I work hard on my French at home but can't understand it.)
Not everybody is same. There are many kinds of learners. Like some are new to a language and others know the basics like spellings, some pronunciation and can understand to some extent. The Golden Tips that I have mentioned above are beneficial for both. If you follow this schedule with full dedication and honesty for at least three months, I promise you that your language will drastically improve.
Many a time, there are people who know English but they cannot answer questions in IELTS. Reason, lack of confidence and knowledge. You must know about the topic to be spoken in order to speak.
In journalism, there is a common saying, "READ TO WRITE". I always cite this example to my students and tell them to read as much as they can. This also improves their knowledge and they can speak on the issues they have read about.
Apart from that you can buy a grammar book and work on a few exercises every day to learn the rules.
I have been teaching English as a private tutor since 2003. I also worked as an ESL (English as a second language) lecturer at Chitkara University of Engineering and Technology, Baddi, Himachal Pradesh, India.
I had opened up an institute of English academy but due to some financial problems, my dream project had to be closed.
My passion for learning and teaching English has never stopped. Right now, I have been working as a Sub-Editor in The Tribune (English daily newspaper), for more than three years. But I still teach the whole day since morning for three reasons:
1.My newspaper job starts at 6 pm in the evening and I have the whole day.
2. Passion
3. Money
Please share and comment on the page if you like it.
Regards

How to speak English

You should read newspaper everyday loudly and write ten pages in beautiful handwriting.

How to use ought to? What is Ought to? All the usages of ought to. MODAL.

Ought to is followed by 'to'. Sometimes it is used without 'to'.

Google image

It doesn't change its form.
A) You can use it to say about what is the right thing to do.
For example:
1. They thief ought to be punished.
2. They ought to have apologised.
3. Smoking ought not to be allowed in the office.
4. She oughtn't to have been eating all medicines.

B) You can use it to say what you expect or would like to happen.
For example:
1. Children ought to be able to walk by the age of 1.
2. Editors ought to earn more.

C) You can use it to say what you advise or recommend.
For example:
1. You ought to be leaving now.
2. The meals are sumptuous. You ought to try some.
3. You ought to have come to tour. It was interesting.

D) You can use it to say about what has probably happened or is probably true.
For example:
1. If she started out at seven, she ought to be here by now.
2. That ought to be enough fuel for our journey.
3. Oughtn't the chicken to have cooked by now?
Kindly share it if you feel it deserves.
Regards
Nasser Gorsi

What is Might? How to use Might? Different usages of Might. Is your Might actually Right?

Might is one of the most commonly used words to express possibility. It is also used in conditional sentences.

Google image

A) Used in the past tense of may when you want to report about what somebody has said.
For example:
1. Sam said he might visit tomorrow.

B) You can use it when you want to say that something is or was possible.
For example:
1. She might call me, but I can't be sure.

2. I know Van doesn't like the work, but I mightn't find it too bad.
3. The plan might have helped them, if only they had taken it on time.

C) You can use it to make any polite suggestion.
For example:
1. You might try calling the cops.
2. I thought we might go for trekking on Sunday.

D) You can use it to ask permission politely.
For example:
1. Might I use your computer?
2. If I might just submit my story.

E) You can use it to ask for any information.
For example:
1. How might the policies be improved upon?

F) One can use it to show that one is annoyed about something that somebody could do or could have done.
For example:
1. I think he might at least stay here.
2. Honestly, she might have informed me!

G) One can use it to say that one is not surprised by something.
For example:
1. She might have guessed that it was me who was calling her!

H) You can use it to emphasise that some vital point has been made.
For example:
1. 'And where were you yesterday?' 'You might well ask!'

Как забить 9 полос в письменной форме модуля IELTS. Золотые советы для озвучивания 9 полос в письменной форме модуля IELTS .

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Задумывались ли вы о том, почему вы не можете набрать больше очков, в письменной форме модуля IELTS несмотря на принятие коучинга отв институте . Вытот, ктоновичок и хочет забить хорошо в IELTS и нуждается в руководстве?
Если да, то вы находитесь в правильном блоге. Я преподаю IELTS в течение шести лет. Очень часто , многие студенты спрашивают меня о том, как они могли забить больше в письменной форме модуля. Многие кандидаты сталкиваются с проблемой в читальных графиков , круговых диаграмм и т.д.
Теперь, я надеюсь, что ваш поиск окончен. Пожалуйста, прочитайте инструкции , написанные здесь и принести лавры.

1. Напишите обзор: Это должно включать в себя краткое изложение информации и даты из графика / диаграммы и обычно приходит в заключении.

2. Сосредоточьтесь на ключевых особенностей графика / плату.

3. Уведомление общие тенденции: население может быть колебания , но в течение промежутка весь период они нарастания / спада / остаются стабильными.

4. Используйте данные / цифры , чтобы поддержать ваше описание: Это означает, что каждое заявление о графике ( например,население значительно возросло ) нуждается в поддержке цифрами (например,население значительно возросло примерно на 50 % ).

5. Использовать пассивный голос, когда требуется :​​электроэнергия производится в три этапа.

6. Разделите работу логически в пунктах: введение, основную часть (обычно два абзаца) , а затем заключение.

7. Парафраз инструкциям: Ваш введение должно , и ввести график. Не хорошо копировать задание. Убедитесь, что вы перефразировать его.

8. Напишите по крайней мере, минимум 150 слов: Это может звучать глупо, но это очень важно. Вы потеряете очки по ТП для под - длины.

9. Используйте ссылки на сигнал КОНТРАСТ / дополнение и т.д.

10. Мозговой штурм синонимы и избежать повторения слов.

11. Свести к минимуму простые ошибки и проверить задачу после написания.

Пожалуйста, напишите комментарий и поделиться , если вам это нравится.

Весь текст был переведен с английского языка на русский с помощью Google Translator .
Ошибки пожалел.

привет

M. Nasser Gorsi
ESL Lecturer and Linguist